The operating or storage temperature affects the battery's performance [15], [16], [17]. Typically LiBs operate in a temperature range between 15 °C and 35 °C to perform optimally and secure a long cycle life [18], [19], [20], [21], [22]. However, during operation, a considerable amount of heat, especially at high rates, can be generated from the cell. This can significantly speed up the temperature elevation [22], [23] and accentuate the temperature non-uniformity when batteries are stacked in modules or packs [24], [25] or cooled inefficiently [26]. If the heat is not successfully evacuated or if the temperature is not optimally controlled via a battery thermal management system (BTMS) [27], [28], [29], this can lead to the battery’s temperature exceeding the safety temperature range, above which the cell’s components decompose and result in exothermic reactions, ultimately leading to safety accidents involving thermal runaway (TR), smoke and even fire [30], [31].
TR occurs when a LiB is in an internal failure state caused by uncontrolled electrochemical reactions [32]. These exothermic electrochemical reactions are influenced by two main factors: temperature and voltage [33], [34]. They can be triggered when a cell is used outside its normal operating range and is exposed to extreme abuse conditions. These conditions can be classified into three categories: electrical [35], [36], thermal [37], [38] and mechanical abuse